• Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Confucius meets Lao Tzu
• Confucian and Taoist opposites
• First evidence of Taoism, 3rd century BC
• Taoism under the Han Dynasty
• Literary beginnings of Alchemical Taoism
• How do you know when you are ready?
• Duke of Chou’s Mandate of Heaven and the Tao
• Taoist Classics
• The Continuing Diversity of Taoism

Chapter 47: The Emergence of Taoism

Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Confucius meets Lao Tzu

During the Han, we find the first mention of Taoism by Ssu-ma Ch’ien, China’s first great historian. This is where historical Taoism begins. He lumps all those who talk about the Tao as Taoists. As this diverse group of people had no sense of personal identity, they also had no real history.

While Chinese historians don’t address the actual history of Taoism, they do speak of Lao Tzu. Lao Tzu wrote the Tao Te Ching, which is considered to be the founding bible of Taoism, at least traditionally. Let us see what Ssu-ma Ch’ien, the first great Chinese historian, who lived in the Han dynasty when Taoism was first named, says about Lao Tzu. In so doing we will find out a little about early historical conceptions of Taoism. Also it will help us to further understand this transitional period in the differentiation of Confucianism and Taoism. In his work Records of the Historian he says that Lao Tzu, the traditional founder of Taoism, was a contemporary of Confucius, living in the 6th century BC. He relates a meeting between the two masters.

“Confucius went to Chou to consult Lao Tzu about rules of propriety. Lao Tzu said, “Those whom you talk about are dead and their bones have decayed. Only their words have remained. When the time is proper, the superior man rides in a carriage, but when it is not, he covers himself up and staggers away. I have heard that a good merchant stores away his treasures as if his store were empty and that a superior man with eminent virtue appears as if he were stupid. Get rid of your air of pride and many desires, your insinuating manners and lustful wishes. None of these is good for you. That is all I have to tell you.”

Confucius left and told his pupils. “I know birds can fly, fish can swim, and animals can run. That which runs can be trapped, that which swims can be netted, and that which flies can be shot. As to the dragon, I don’t know how it rides on the winds and clouds and ascends to heaven. Lao Tzu, whom I saw today, is indeed like a dragon.”’ …

“Today followers of Lao Tzu degrade Confucianism and students of Confucianism also degrade Lao Tzu. ‘People going different ways do not take counsel from one another.’ [from Confucian Analects]”[1]

This history was the source for all the histories that followed until the 20th century. It implies that Lao Tzu and Confucius were contemporaries. An underlying idea here is that Lao Tzu and Confucius founded their philosophical schools about the same time. We’ll be back to all the misconceptions this has generated.

We also see that there were conflicts between followers of Lao Tzu and Confucius in Ssu-ma’s time. We also see Ssu-ma suggesting, through a Confucian saying, that the two at this point in history are not taking ‘counsel from one another’ because they are going such different ways. The underlying assumption is that they could learn from each other if they were not so focused on their own way to the exclusion of the other. This is all that will be said for now on history.

In terms of the social forms of society, we see Lao Tzu chiding Confucius for following the ways of dead men. He is obviously saying that the ceremonies of the past dynasties were good then but are inappropriate now. This points out a crucial dichotomy between Confucianism and Taoism. The Confucians, as we shall see, held onto the forms of the past as a means of warding off social chaos. The Confucians tended to be reactionary in not wanting to change the great traditions of the past. The Taoists, on the other hand, believe in reversing the natural order, ‘stealing a march on heaven’, transcending conditioning. This tends to be contrary to popular thinking about Taoism.

 

Confucian and Taoist opposites

Now that we have seen the factors behind the emergence of the Ju School and ideas of Confucius, we can better understand the original meaning of the term Taoism, especially when it first came into popular usage. Those who wanted to participate in China’s power establishment in the Han dynasty and later learned the 13 Ju Ching in order to be appointed to a nice government position. Those who didn’t find meaning in the imperial Chinese power structure and who found the Ju ceremonies rigid and out-dated, didn’t become involved in imperial China. They were the other – the Taoists.[2]

Because of this dichotomy Confucianism and Taoism represent the polarities of Chinese thought in many ways.

The Taoists, excluded from political power, went the other way. They stressed personal power first. Hence the Taoists ministered to those who had no desire to be involved in the imperial Chinese power structure. Confucius and the Ju School stressed that the virtuous man was involved politically in the transformation of society. The other, the Taoists, realizing that power could only be wielded if one adopted the Ju Ching and precepts, rejected the imperial power structure altogether. The Taoists stressed power on personal and local levels rather than on social and imperial levels. This is one context for the development of Taoist beliefs.

The second context is more general and inherent to the beliefs of the others, the Taoists. While the Chinese power structure based upon the Ju School was patriarchal, the local religions harked back to the egalitarian culture of the Neolithic. While this was not in any ways a matriarchal society, the Neolithic cultures tended to worship female fertility in the form of the pregnant or nursing woman. This was not a hierarchical society although those with limited ken put women incorrectly in charge. While women were not exclusively in charge they did have the possibility of assuming roles of leadership.

The militaristic Bronze Age Shang culture conquered the Neolithic Yangshao pottery culture, putting men in positions of leadership, including the family. While the rulers were busily worshipping their ancestors, the local populations tended to continue worshipping the gods and goddesses of their Neolithic cultures. The Shang dynasty maintained control through force not belief. Although the Shang/Chou/Ju all stressed ancestors and family, the Taoists believed in no history, being born of yourself with no parents, hence no ancestry. In attempting to exist independent of context, the Taoists tended to minimize family heritage.

First evidence of Taoism, 3rd century BC

Before getting into any more detail let us return to historical Taoism. What is the first concrete evidence of its existence? Remember that the Taoism of the Han dynasty were all the local religions that weren’t the state religion. This was not confined to the philosophical Taoism of Lao Tzu but included it. The popular local religions associated with Taoism had in their pantheon of Gods, the Immortals. In the third century BC, in the late Chou dynasty, we find incense burners in the shape of mountains that are inscribed with these Taoist Immortals. This is the first clear physical indication of a Taoist religion.[3].

The first clear philosophical evidence of Taoism comes from the same time. The local religions are associated with mystery cults as mentioned earlier. These mystery cults speak about a connection between an Old Master and the Yellow Emperor. We saw earlier that the combination of sage and ruler is a common Taoist theme.

“Towards the beginning of the first empire (221 BC), these cosmological visions of the Tao were associated with the “Way of the Yellow Emperor and the Old Master” (Huang-lao chih Tao). This school appears then to have been a Mystery religion with a wide following that inspired many thinkers.”[4]

The Yellow Emperor, according to legend lived in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, and brought culture to China. His teacher was the Old Master, supposedly an incarnation of Lao Tzu.[5] Because Lao Tzu wrote the Tao Te Ching, some traditions, non-scholastic, claim that the Tao Te Ching was written before the time of the Yellow Emperor, some time around 3000 BC. Literary scholarship does not support this claim.

Taoism under the Han dynasty

As mentioned earlier it was during the Han that Taoism got its name in opposition to Confucianism. Taoism was associated with the supernatural, while the academic Ju School was associated with rationality. In this connection Taoism was associated with the search for immortality. This was the realm of Chinese alchemy, whose primary focus was vitality that would lead to immortality. Hence their thrust was on medicine and potency.

“During the Han dynasty (206 BC to AD 221), the tombs contained objects related to the quest for immortality. …In addition, the tombs contained objects related to alchemical research. … The quest for immortality certainly influenced medical research, and contributed especially to its theoretical systemization.”[6]

As contrasted with the unworldly yogis of India, the Chinese were very much of this world. This is reflected in their desire for immortality. The yearning for immortality comes when life is good. Notice the health consciousness of the good life Californians. Connected with immortality is vitality; connected with vitality is nutrition. Hence the quest for immortality directly led to medical research into health and vitality. This led to schools of internal and external alchemy. Note that while Chinese alchemy began with the quest for health and the magic pill of immortality, that the European alchemists began with the search for wealth. They both ended up with the quest for internal transformation through intense investigation of the natural order of things. This difference in emphasis comes up again with the introduction of Buddhism to China.

Taoism, as the word to represent the subculture, became associated with alchemy. Alchemy and science are linked, as well as alchemy and magic. Hence the Taoists were the scientists and the magicians.

During the Han “Taoism was espoused by many in high position, but it degenerated more and more into magic and the search for the elixir of life and for means of transmuting the baser metals into gold.”[7]

The ultra-rationalistic Ju School based upon history and culture were opposed to this supernatural strain of Taoism. Taoism, however, was local religion and was thereby also associated with the supernatural, superstitious side of popular religion. This is similar to the ultra-rational scientists disassociating themselves from any supernatural associations.

Literary beginnings of Alchemical Taoism

Also during the tolerant Han dynasty, the first classic of Taoist alchemy was written, Triplex Unity by Wei Po-yang. It is unlikely that he would have named himself a follower of Taoist alchemy. It is for others to name the philosophy of a master.

Says Thomas Cleary:

“This manual of spiritual alchemy became a major source book for practitioners of the Complete Reality School of Taoism, which arose approximately 1000 years after the composition of the Triplex Unity. This difficult but intriguing book is still referred to in modern Taoist literature as the ancestor of alchemical treatises and is held in highest esteem.”[8]

At this time the writings were in highly symbolic language and only intelligible to the initiate. The reason was twofold. First persecution. The ruling military aristocracy could change from tolerance to rigidity at any time. Being the subculture for thousands of years had taught some valuable lessons. It was safer to stay submerged out of the attention of the government.

Second, and probably more importantly, the alchemists had dangerous information. Physically they knew about vitamins as well as poisons. Psychologically they knew how to calm someone’s nerves and how to drive someone crazy. Sexually they could retain and augment vitality or they could drain their partner of essence and strength. Advanced topics aren’t for everybody. Certain topics are only available for those who have shown aptitude and virtue.

Sounds like Confucius, doesn’t it? While Confucius wants political power reserved for those with aptitude and virtue, the Taoist adept will only reveal the secrets of personal power to those showing aptitude and virtue. Personal power is not for the corrupt or ignorant and should be concealed.

How do you know when you are ready?

How is aptitude determined? When does the Master reveal the secrets? How does he know when his disciples are ready? Master Ni uses the technique devised by Confucius, further suggesting the Confucian connection to Taiji and Taoist thought. Reveal part of the puzzle and let the student figure out the rest. Master Ni, Taiji master, retains truth. It is like the retention of sperm or vital energy. Control is maintained at all times even in abandonment. He reveals a little and lets the student do the rest.

The Taiji master gives out keys but lets the student find the door. If the student is perceptive he can find and open the doors to power with the keys given him by the Master. This is the criterion for readiness, not understanding. The Master does not reveal truth; he provides keys. As the charioteer, he reins in his horses so that they don’t get too carried away. While many truths are revealed, personal power must be developed on an individual level.

Similarly on personal levels, the Taoists would say that the abuse of individual power leads to degeneration and decline. Further they would say that personal power is not even available to the ignorant. Remember that the Taoists have differentiated the individual out from the collective, applying the general political insights to the specific individual situation.

Duke of Chou’s Mandate of Heaven and the Tao

Remember that Confucius only extends concepts verbalized by the Duke of Chou especially that of the Mandate of Heaven. The Duke of Chou and the Taoists might instead say that Heaven or the Tao will eventually remove political power from the ignorant or evil. This mechanism will not necessarily be immediate but will manifest over lifetimes. In other words, the continued abuses of power by a dynasty will lead to their inevitable demise.

These connections between Taoism, Confucius, the Duke of Chou, and the Mandate of Heaven are not at all unusual having emerged from the same backdrop of ideas. Remember that Chinese thought had not differentiated itself into schools of thought in the Duke of Chou’s time. These intertwining trains of thought only indicate how much interaction was going on between the different schools of thought. In many ways the ideas of the Duke of Chou are a root source for Chinese political thought. Indeed in some ways it seems as if Confucius and his immediate followers set the philosophical foundation for modern Taoism as manifested in Tai Chi. We’ll get to that later.

As in the Tao Te Ching and the Chuang Tzu, physical practices are behind the ideas of Taoist alchemy. While all three communicate with words, as that is all that is available, understanding is secondary to physical practices. Many of these physical practices are based in shamanistic traditions. In this sense, Taoist alchemy was more an outgrowth of the non-verbal Mystery tradition based in shamanism, than it was based upon the verbal tradition of the Tao Te Ching and the Chuang Tzu. The thrust was not peace and quiet as much as ecstatic states of being. In this way it was also connected to the fertility cults, where ecstasy is found in the midst of creation. This is a bit different from the heavy sense of social responsibility found especially in Confucianism and somewhat in the Tao Te Ching.

Taoist Classics

In terms of Chinese versus Taoist or Confucian, most literate Chinese read the Lao Tzu and the Chuang Tzu although they were not part of the Confucian classics that were demanded by the university.

Note that ‘the Lao Tzu’ is a Ching, or Classic. It is the Classic of the virtue of the Tao. As a classic, it was also widely read by the Chinese intelligentsia of all ages. The Chuang-Tzu was also considered a Taoist classic and was also widely read.

“By the middle of the second century BC, after the unification of China, Tao Te Ching was firmly established at the imperial court as a favorite source book of practical wisdom. The more arcane Chuang-Tzu was transmitted in Taoist circles, … eventually to emerge in the third century AD as a popular classic of deep learning ranked with I Ching and Tao Te Ching. Ever since that time, virtually all literate people in China have read Tao Te Ching and Chuang-tzu.”[9]

Because these Taoist Classics were so widely read, the underlying wisdom of these classics forms part of a foundation of Chinese culture just as much as the required Confucian Classics. Note that the Tao Te Ching was used as a ‘source book of practical wisdom’ by the imperial court. It was not used as a way of generating or accumulating personal power. Remember that we must look to Lao Tzu’s Mother Li for the foundational non-verbal transmission.

The Continuing Diversity of Taoism

Internal spiritual alchemy and external alchemy were both called Taoist, along with the multitude of local practices. This only reaffirms that Taoism is a catchall term, an umbrella word, to encompass a great diversity. As Cleary says:

“The incongruity of the age-old search for alchemical gold and physical immortality with the widely recognized evidence ancient Taoists give of advanced knowledge of psychological and physical realities only recently rediscovered by modern science has often led to the question of whether there was any real connection between different forms of activity lumped together under the name of Taoism.”[10]

In terms of Taoist thought, let it be pointed out that the First Emperor after burning the books became a recluse, searching for potions of immortality[11] and listened to songs about the ‘pure beings’. The ‘pure beings’ are part of Taoist mythology as is the search for immortality part of the thrust of alchemical Taoism. Although these ideas and concerns are Taoist, Taoism had not even been named yet at the time of the First Emperor. These were Chinese concerns that were separate from the rationalistic Ju School. Hence Taoist becomes a word during the Han to describe anyone who participates in these indigenous supernatural concerns.